Глава 7. зированных, а во многих случаях и полностью основанных на ЭВМ систем, где обычно применяются блоки, использующие учебный материал

зированных, а во многих случаях и полностью основанных на ЭВМ систем, где обычно применяются блоки, использующие учебный материал, рассмотрение вопросов обучения на такой системе должно быть неотъемлемой частью деятельности проектировщика. Мы предполагаем, что подход проектировщика к данной задаче сходен с подходом, которым пользуются разработчики обучающих систем: последние детально анализируют, какие задачи будут решаться данной системой, а также рассматривают различные способы их решения. Разумеется, проек-тироыш:к системы должен исегда мысленно оценивать соотношение между тем, насколько легко научиться работать с данной системой, и тем, насколько мощной должна быть эта система. Исходя из этого он может увеличить мощность и гибкость системы благодаря способности ЭВМ давать данные в простой форме, наличию восстанавливающих процедур, а также возможности практиковаться и использовать информативную машинную графику.

Литература

1. Abernathy E. М. (1940) The effect of changed environmental conditions upon the results of college examinations. Journal of Psychology, 10, 293— 301.

2. Anderson J. R. (1976) Language, memory and thought. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

3. Anderson J. R (1980) Cognitive psychology and its implications. San Francisco, CA: Freeman.

4. Anderson J. R. (ed.) (1981) Cognitive skills and their acquisition. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

5. Anderson J. R. (1983) Architecture of cognition. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

6. Anderson J. R., Bower G. H. (1973) Human associative memory. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

7. Anderson J. R„ Boyle С F., Farrell R., Reiser B. J. (1984) Cognitive principles in the design of computer tutors (Technical Report No. ONR 84-1). Pittsburgh, PA: Carnegie-Mellon University.

8. Anderson J. R„ Farrell R., Sauers R. (1984) Learning to program in LISP. Cognitive Science, 8, 87—129.

9. Anderson R. C. (1983, May) Cognition, instruction and interest. Paper presented at the Office of Naval Research Conference on Aptitude, Learning and Instruction: Conative and affective process analysis, Stanford, CA.

10 Anzai Y., Simon H. A. (1979) The theory of learning by doing. Psychological Review, 86, 124—140.

11. Ausabel D. P. (1960) The use of advance organizers in the learning and retention of meaningful verbal learning. Journal of Educational Psychology, 5/, 267-272.

12. Baddeley A. D. (1966) Short-term memory for word sequences function of acoustic, semantic, and formal similarity. Quarterly Journal af Experimental Psychology, 18, 362—365.

13. Bandura A. (1977) Social learning theory. Englewood Cliffs, NJ- Prentice-Hall-

Научение и забывание

14. Веек А. (1967) Depression; Clinical, experimental and theoretical aspects. New York: Harper & Row.

15. Bellezza F. S. (1982) Improve your memory skills. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.

16. Bellezza I-. S. (1983) The spatial-arrangement mnemonic. Journal of Educational Psychology, 75, 830—837.

17. Bethell-Fox С. Е. (1983) Visual metuorlsure as a learning strategy. Unpublished dissertation, Stanford University, Palo Alto, CA.

18. Bousfield W. A. (1953) The occurrence of clustering in the recall of randomly arranged associates. Journal of General Psychology, 49, 229—240.

19. Bower G. H, (1970) Imagery as a relational organizer in associative learning. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 9, 529—533.

20. Bower G H. (1970) Analysis of a mnemonic device. American Scientist, 58, 496—510.

21. Bower G H., Black J. В.. Turner T. J. (1979) Scripts in memory for text. Cognitive Psychology, 11, 177—220.

22. Bower G. H„ Clark M. C, Lesgold A. At., Winzenz D. (1969) Hierarchical retrieval schemes in recall of categorized word lists. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 8, 323—343.

23. Bower G. H., Cohen P. R. (1982) Emotional influences in memory and thinking: Data and theory. In At. S. Clarke, S. T. Fiske (eds), Affect and cognition: The seventeenth annual Carnegie symposium on cognition Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum, pp. 291—331.

24. Bower G. H„ Hilgard E. R. (1981) Theories of learning, 5th ed. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.

25. Bower G. H., Atonteiro K. P., Gilligan S. S. (1978) Emotional mood as a context for learning and recall. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 17, 573—585.

26. Bradley At. At., Glenberg A. At. (1983) Strengthening associations: Duration, attention or relation. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 22, 650-666.

27. Bransford J. D., Franks J. J. (1971) The abstraction of linguistic ideas. Cognitive Psychology, 2, 331—350.

28. Brooks L. R. (1968) Spatial and verbal components of the act of recall. Canadian Journal of Psychology, 22, 349—368.

29. Brown J. S., VanLehri K. (1980) Repair theory: A generative theory of bugs in procedural skills. Cognitive Science. 4, 379—462.

30. Card S. K.. Atoran I. P., Newell A. (1983) The Psychology of "Human-Computer Interaction. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

31. Chase W. G., Ericsson K. A. (1981) Skilled memory. In J. R. Anderson (ed.) Cognitive skills and their acquisition. Hillsdale. NJ: Erlbaum.

32. Chipman S. F„ Segal J. W.. Glaser R. (eds) (1985) Thinking and learning skills, Vol. 2, Research and open questions. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

33. Clark At. S. (1982) A role for arousal in the link between feeling states, judgments and behavior. In At. S. Clark, S. T. Fiske (eds) Affect and cognition: The seventeenth annual Carnegie symposium on cognition, Hillsdale. NJ: Erlbaum, pp. 263—290.

34. Clark At. S., Fiske T. S. (eds) (1982) Affect and cognition: The seventeenth annual Carnegie symposium on cognition. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

35. Collins A., Smith E. E. (1982) Teaching the process of reading comprehension. In D. Detterman, R. Sternberg (eds), How and How much can intelligence by increased? Norwood, NJ: Ablex.

36. Conrad R. (1964) Acoustic confusions in immediate memory. British Journal of Psychology, 55. 75—84.

37. Craik I. At., Lockhart R. S. (1972) Levels of processing: A framework fnr memorv research. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 11, 671-684.

356 Глава 7

38. Ellis Н. С, Thomas R. L., Kodriguez I. A. (1984) Emotional mood states

and memory: Elaborative encoding, semantic processing and cognitive effort. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory and Cognition, 10, 470—482.

39. Fitts P. (1964) Perceptual-motor skill learning. In A. W. Melton (ed.) Categories of human learning. New York: Academic, pp. 243—285.

40. Prase L. T. (1975) Prose processing. In G. H. Bower (ed.), The psychology of learning and motivation, Vol. 9. New York: Academic.

41. Furst B. (1958) Stop forgetting: How to develop your memory and put it to productive use. Garden City, NY: Doubleday.

42. Gage N., Berliner D. (1979) Educational psychology. Chicago: Rsml-McNally.

43. Gagne R. M. (1985) The conditions of learning and theory of instruction, 4th ed. New York: Holt, Rineliart & Winston.

44. Gagne R. M., Briggs L. J. (1977) Principles of instructional design, 2nd ed. New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston.

45. Genther D. (1983, May) Paper presented at the Office of Naval Research Contractors Meeting on Problem-Solving and Mental Models, Berkeley, CA.

46. Gitomer D. H., Glaser R. (in press) If you don't know it, work on it: Knowledge, self-regulation and instruction, In R. E. Snow & M. Farr (eds). Aptitude, learning and instruction, Vol. 3, Conative and affective process analysis. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

47. Godden D. R., Baddeley A. D. (1975) Cortext-dejerdent memory in two natural environment: on land and under water. British Journal of Psychology. 66, 325—331.

48. Higbee K. L. (1977) Your memory: How it works and how to Improve it. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.

49. Hunter I. M. L. (1977) Mental calculation. In P. N. Johnson-Laird, P. С Wason (eds), Thinking. New York: Cambridge University Press, pp. 35—45.

50. Isen A. M., Shalker T. E., Clark M„ Karp L. (1978) Positive affect, asses-sibility of material in memory and behavior: A cognitive loop? Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 36, 1—12.

51. Keele S. W. (1973) Attention and human performance. Pacific Palisades, CA: Goodyear.

52. Kintch (1974) The representation of meaning in memory. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

53. Leight K., Ellis H. (1981) Emotional mood states, strategies and state dependency in memory. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 20, 251—266.

54. Lewis С. Н. (1978) Speed and practice. Unpublished Manuscript. Pittsburgh, PA: Carnegie Mellon University, Department of Psychology.

55. Lorayne H., Lucas J. (1974) The memory book. New York: Ballantine Books or Stein & Day.

56. Malone T. W. (1981) Toward a theory of intrinsically motivating instruction. Cognitive Science, 4, 333—369.

57. Malone T. W., Lepper M. (1983, May) Motivation, cognition and computerized instruction. Paper presented at the Office Naval Research Conierence on Aptitute, Learning and Instruction: Conative and Affective process analysis, Stanford, CA.

58. Marcel T. (1983) Consious and unconsious perception: Experiments on visual masking ana word recognition. Cognitive Psychology. 15, 197—237.

59. McConkie G. W., Rayner K. (1975) The span of the effective stimulus der-vive a fixation in reading. Perception and Psychophysics, 17, 578—596. Washington, DC: U.S. Office of Education,

Научение и забывание

60. McGeoch J. A. (1942) The psychology of human learning. New York: Longmans.

61. Meichenbaum D. (1977) Cognitive behavior modification: An integrative approach. New York: Plenum.

62. Miller G. A. (1956) The magical number seven, plus or minus two: Some limits on our capacity for processing information. Psychological Review, 63, 81—97.

63. Minsky M. (1975) A framework for representing knowledge. In P. H. Winston (ed.), The psychology of computer vision. New York: McGraw-Hill.

64. Neves D. M„ Anderson J. R. (1981) Knowledge compilation: Mechanisms for the automatization of cognitive skills. In J. K. Anderson (ed.), Cognitive skills and their acquisition. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

65. Newell A. (1973) Production systems: Models of control structures. In W. G. Chase (ed.), Visual information processing. New York: Academic.

66. Newell A., Rosenbloom J. (1981) Mechanisms of skill acquisition and the law of practice. In J. R. Anderson (ed.), Cognitive skills and their acquisition. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

67. Newell A., Simon H. A. (1972) Human problem solving. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.

68. Nickerson R. (1980) Motivated retrieval from archival memory. Nebraska Symposium on Motivation, 28, 73—120.

69. Nilsson N. J. (1981) Principles of artificial intelligence. Palo Alto, CA: Tioga.

70. Norman D. A., Rumelhart D. E. (1975) Explorations in Cognition. San Francisco, CA: Freeman.

71. Paivio A. (1971) Imagery and verbal processes. New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston.

72. Poison P. G., Kieras D. E. (1984) A formal description of users' knowledge of how to operate a device and user complexity. Behavior Research Methods, Instrumentation & Computers, 16, 249—255.

73. Reder L. M., Anderson J. R. (1980) A comparison of texts and their summaries' Memorial consequences. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 19, 121—134.

74. Rosenthal T. Y., Zimmerman B. J. (1978) Social learning and cognition. New York: Academic.

75. Rumelhart D. E. (1981, January) Understanding understanding (Technical Report No. CHIP 100). San Diego, CA: University of California, Center for Human Information Processing.

76. Rumelhart D. E., Norman D. A. (1978) Accretion, tuning and restructuring: Three modes of learning. In J. W. Cotton & R. Klatzky (eds), Semantic factors in congition. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

77. Rumelhart D. E., Norman D. A. (1981) Analogical processes in learning. In J. R. Anderson (ed.), Cognitive skills and their acquisition. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

78. Rumelhart D. E., Norman D. A. (1983, June) Representation in memory (Technical Report No. CHIP 116). San Diego, CA; University of California, Center for Human Information Processing.

79. Rumelhart D. E., Ortony A. (1977) The representation of knowledge in memory. In R. C. Anderson, R. J. Spiro, W. E. Montague (eds), Schooling and the acquisition of knowledge. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

80. Ryle G. (1949) The concept of mind, London: Hutchinson.

81. Santa J. L. (1977) Spatial transformations of words and pictures. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Learning and Memory, 3, 418—427.

82. Sarason I. E. (ed.) (1980) Test Anxiety: Theory research and applications. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

83. Schank R. C, Abelson R. (1977) Scripts, plans, goals and understanding. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

358 Глава 7

84. Schmalhofer F. J. (1982) Comprehension of a technical text as a function of expertise. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Colorado, Boulder

85. Schneider \V. (1982, April) Automatic/control processing concepts and their implications for the training of skills-final report (Technical Report No. 8101). Champaign, IL: University of Illinois, Human Attention Research Laboratory.

86. Schneider W. (1984, August) Training high performance skills: Fallacies and guidelines (Technical Report No. HARL-ONR-8301). Champaign, IL: University of Illinois, Human Attention Research Laboratory.

87. Schneider W., Fisk A. D. (1982) Degree of consistent training: Improvements in search performance and automatic process development. Perception and Psychophysics, 31, 160—168.

88. Sega! J. W„ Chipman S. F., Glaser R. (eds) (1985) Thinking and Learning Skills: Vol. 1, Relating instruction to research, Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

89. Shepard R. N. (1967) Recognition memory for words, sentences and pictures, lournal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 6, 156—163.

90. Shulman H. G. (1970) Encoding and retention of semantic and phonemic information in short-term memory. lournal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 9, 499—508.

91. Sleeman D., Brown J. S. (eds) (1982) Intelligent tutoring systems. New York: Academic.

92. Smith E. E., Medin D. L. (1981) Categories anl concepts, Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

93. Snow R. E., Farr M. (eds) (in press) Aptitude, learning and instruction, Vol. 3: Conative and affective process analysis. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

94. Snyder M., Swann W. B. (1978) Hypothesis-testing processes in social interaction. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 36, 1202—1212.

95. Sperling G., Parish D. H., Pavel M., Desatilniers D. H. (1984, November) Auditory list recall: Phonemic structure, acoustic confusability and familiarity, Paper presented at the meeting of the Psychonomic Society, San Antonio, TX.

96. Thomas E. L., Robinson H. A. (1972) Improving reading in every class: A sourcebook for teachers. Boston: Allyn and Bacon.

97. Tulving E. (1983) Elements of episodic memory. New York: Oxford University Press.

98. Tulving E., Pearlstone Z. (1966) Availability versus accessibility of information in memory for words. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 5, 381—391.

99. Tversky A. (1977) Features of similarity. Psychological Review, 84, 327— 352.

100. Velton E. (1968) A laboratory task for induction of mood states. Behavior Research and Therapy, 6. 473—482.

101. Von Restorff H. (1933) Ober die Wirkung von Bereichsbildungen im Spuren-feld. Psychologie Forschung, 18, 299—342.

102. Wason P. C, Johnson-Laird P. N. (1972) Psychology of reasoning: Structure and content, Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

103. Wickelgren W. A. (1974) How to solve problems. San Francisco: Freeman.

104. Wickelgren W. A. (1981) Human learning and memory. Annual Review of Psychologu, 32, 21—52.

105. Wickens C. D. (1984) Engineering psychology and human performance. Columbus, OH: Merrill.

106. Wickens С D.. Boles D. B. (1983, December) The limits of multiple resource theory: The role of task correlation/integration in optimal display format-ling (Technical Report No. EPL-83-5/ONR-83-5). Urbana Champaign, IL: University of Illinois, Engineering Psychology Program.

107. Wickens С D„ Sandry D. L, Vidulich M. (1983) Compatibility and resource

Научение и аабьианке ________ _______359

competition between modalities of input, central processing and output, Human Factors, 25, 227—248.

108. Wickens C. D„ Vidulich M., Sandry D. L. (1983) S-O-R Compatibility: Paul Htts in the 1980*8. In R, Jenson (ed), Second symposium on aviation psychology, Columbus: Ohio State University, Institute of Aviation.

109. Wickens C. D. (1972) Characteristics o! word encoding. In A. W. Melton, E. Martin (eds), 'Coding processes in human memory. Washington, DC: Winston.

110. Williams M. D. (1978) The process of retrieval from very long term memory (Technical Report No. SHIP-75). San Diego, CA: University of California, Center fo> Human In' эппаИон Processing.

111. Winograi) i. (1У75) Frame Kcprcaeuiationa ai.u the Jssclarauve-proceuurai controversy. In D. Q. Bobrow, A. Collins (eds), Representation and understanding. New York: Academic.

112. Winston P. H. (1984) Artificial intelligence. 2nd ed. Reading, MA: Addison Wesley.

113. Woodward A. E., Bjork R. A„ Jongeward В. Н. (1973) Recall and recognition as a function of primary rehearsal. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 12, 608—617.

114. Yates F. A. (1966) The art of memory. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

115. Zimmerman B. J., Rozenthal T. L. (1972) Concept attainment, transfer and retention through observational learning and rule provision. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 14, 139—150.

Глава 8